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1. History of Sudan – with British involvement

As it lies south of Egypt, and on the Nile, the area that is now Sudan has long been a trade route from Egypt into the heart of Africa. Since the time of the Pharaohs the northern part of Sudan – Nubia - was influenced by Egypt, and in turn influenced Egypt. Nubia was ruled by Egypt from 1500 BC, to around 1000 BC.

Christianity was introduced to Northern Sudan by the Desert Fathers by the fourth century, and much of the region was converted to Coptic Christianity. Islam was introduced in 640 AD with an influx of Muslim Arabs who conquered Egypt, although the Christian Kingdoms of Nubia managed to persist until the 15th century.

In 1820, Northern Sudan came under Egyptian rule. The Egyptians developed Sudan’s trade in ivory and slaves. Egypt tried in the 1870s to extend its influence, provoking a revolt led by the self-proclaimed Mahdi (Messiah), who sought to purify Islam in Sudan. By that time Egypt was under British influence as Britain sought to protect the new Suez Canal trade route. The Mahdi’s nationalist revolt against Egyptian/British rule culminated in the fall of Khartoum, the death of the British General Gordon in 1885 and the temporary abandonment of Sudan by Egypt and the British. In the 1890s the British sought to regain control of Sudan, including through Kitchener’s military campaigns from 1896-98. An agreement reached in 1899 established Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, effectively making Sudan a colony of Britain.

From 1924, the British had a policy of running Sudan as two essentially separate colonies, the south and the north. It was illegal for people living above the 10th parallel to go further south, and people below the 8th parallel to go further north. The law was ostensibly enacted to prevent the spread of tropical diseases that had ravaged British troops, as well as to prevent Northern Sudanese from raiding Southern tribes for slaves. Critics claim that the law was enacted to prevent the spread of Islam and Arab influences south.

Sudan was granted independence in 1956.

2. Civil War – 1955-72 and 1983-2005

The year before independence, a civil war began between Northern and Southern Sudan. Southerners, who knew independence was coming, were afraid the new nation would be dominated by the North.

The North of Sudan was predominantly Arab and Muslim. The South of Sudan was predominantly black, with a mixture of Christianity and Animism. The British policy of isolating south from north administratively may have helped to sow seeds of conflict.

The first civil war lasted from 1955 to 1972, ending with the Addis Ababa Agreement, under which Southern Sudan gained considerable autonomy.

However after ten years, civil war was reignited in 1983. President Nimeiry violated the Addis Ababa agreement by attempting to create a Federated Sudan including the states in Southern Sudan. Exacerbating the situation he introduced shari’a law.

The second civil war lasted more than 20 years, resulting in the deaths of 2.2 million Christians and Animists, and displacing roughly 4.5 million people within Sudan and into neighbouring countries. It damaged Sudan’s economy and led to food shortages, resulting in starvation and malnutrition. The lack of investment during this time, particularly in the south, meant a generation lost access to basic health services, education, and jobs.

Talks between the southern rebels and the Khartoum government from 2003 led to the Naivasha Comprehensive Peace Agreement treaty, signed on 9 January 2005. This granted Southern Sudan autonomy for six years. By 2011 there is to be a referendum among the people of the south on whether to remain as an autonomous part of Sudan or become independent.

3. Southern Sudan’s interim constitution, bringing autonomy

The Comprehensive Peace Agreement has brought an interim system of Government for Sudan. There is a national Government, based in Khartoum in the north and a separate Interim Constitution for Southern Sudan. The national Government includes Southern representation: for example the President of Southern Sudan is the First Vice President of the Khartoum Government.

Southern Sudan has considerable autonomy under its interim constitution. Foreign affairs are the main area reserved to the national Government, along with issues such as immigration and customs duties. But internal matters are effectively left to the government of the South.

The Southern Sudan Government is based in Juba. The constitution provides a Bill of Rights and guiding principles (along with a Council of Ministers, legislature, judiciary and civil service etc). The constitution provides for a democratic, representative system, with equality of all people, and a multicultural ethos. All religions are to be treated equally. English and Arabic are the official working languages, but all indigenous languages are to be respected, developed and promoted. Decentralisation to the 10 states within Southern Sudan is a principle underlying the constitution.

4. Independence ahead for the South?

The Interim constitution provides that by 2011 there is to be a referendum among the people of the south on whether to remain as an autonomous part of Sudan or become independent.

The position of the Khartoum Government appears to be one of attracting the people of Southern Sudan to stay within Sudan. It is implementing the interim constitutional arrangements as agreed, and seems not to be interfering with the activities of the Southern Sudan Government. The development of oil in Southern Sudan is presumably a factor in the political landscape. The development of oil fields - mainly on the southern side of the boundary between north and south Sudan – means oil is now Sudan’s main export, and increasing production and revenues are helping the economy to grow, and supporting a revival of light industry. Under the interim constitution 50% of net revenues from oil fields in the south are given to Southern Sudan.

There is currently an anticipation in the south that the eventual referendum will indeed decide on independence. Southern representatives in the Khartoum Government are pressing for a removal of shari’a law in the north. And the Southern Sudan Government wants to look towards Africa, while the North has a tradition of looking towards the Middle East.

5. Joseph’s role in the Government — the reconciliation issue

The Southern Interim Constitution emphasises that the government “shall initiate a comprehensive programme of national reconciliation and healing that shall promote national harmony, unity and peaceful coexistence among all people in Southern Sudan”.

Joseph Ayok accepted the offer of the Southern Sudan Council of Ministers to become Director of the Department of Religious Affairs in the Government of Southern Sudan, in Juba. He had responsibility for that programme of reconciliation within the south — between the Christian and Muslims, between the many tribes, and between the Government and the church.

6. The cultural background to the reconciliation question

The United Nations estimates the population of the whole of Sudan in 2006 to be about 41 million people. About 7 million live in the south.

Sudan has two distinct major cultures - Arabs with Nubian roots and non-Arab Black Africans - with hundreds of ethnic and tribal divisions and language groups, which makes effective collaboration among them a major problem.

The northern states cover most of the Sudan and include most of the urban centers. Most of the Sudanese who live in this region are Arabic-speaking Muslims, though the majority also use a traditional non-Arabic mother tongue — eg Nubian.

Southern Sudan has a predominantly rural, subsistence economy. Here a majority of the population practises traditional indigenous beliefs, although some practise Christianity, partly a result of Christian missionary efforts and partly a hangover from earlier Christian Nubian civilizations.

The south also contains many tribal groups and many more languages are used than in the north. The Dinka, whose population is estimated at about 2 million, are the largest of the many black African tribes of the Sudan. The Dinka are a group of tribes, inhabiting the more northerly regions of Southern Sudan, along the boundary with Northern Sudan, including the swamplands of the Bahr el Ghazal region. They are mainly pastoral people, relying on cattle herding at riverside camps in the dry season and growing millet in fixed settlements during the rainy season. The name means "people" in the Dinka language.

7. Is the Darfur conflict a threat to the work of Under Tree Schools?

Just as the North-South civil war was reaching a resolution, a new rebellion in the western region of Darfur began in early 2003, and conflict continues here. The Darfur region consists of three states at the western end of Northern Sudan, and the conflict is between rebels in Darfur and the northern Government in Khartoum. Darfur does not extend into Southern Sudan; and the conflict does not significantly impinge on the South.

8. The challenges

The Christian denominations feel grievances at the past actions of the Muslim Government in Khartoum. The Muslim community, a majority in the Khartoum Government, will be a small minority in the South and will no doubt feel the risk of being marginalised. Many of the 100 or more tribes in the south have long standing enmity with others.

Resolution of these deeply held feelings will be a challenge for a new Government starting to manage a new country from scratch.